On Stephen Krashen's language theories

 By Manuel Espinal

The author is teacher and journalist

 Stephen Krashen is one of the most prolific researchers in the field of second-language acquisition, for which he has presented or introduced a series of concepts and hypotheses.  Among them we can mention:

a) Acquisition and learning hypothesis

b) Input Hypothesis

C) Monitor Hypothesis

d) Natural order hypothesis

e) Affective filter

f) Free voluntary reading

Meanwhile, we are going to introduce separately each hypothesis and thus we will have a better idea about each of them.

Acquisition and Learning hypothesis 

According to Krashen, the acquisition process of the second language occurs naturally, intuitively and subconsciously as result of the continuous meaningful interaction in the target language. The process is the same for both children and adults (acquirers) in the second or native language.  Acquirers do not realize they have attained the language, and they focus on meaning rather than forms.

Stephen Krashen

Going a little far beyond, we can infer from what Krashen has said that the process of acquisition is closely related to an environment where the target language is spoken, and due to the continuous contact that acquirers have with such a language, they can easily acquire it. However, I pose a question. What about those children and adults who speak fluently and accurately the target language, but their setting is the school, because out of this place, the spoken language is the native one?

On the other hand, we have the process of learning a second language, which according to Krashen is something like what we experience in school. The language is presented explicitly (consciously) through a series of grammar rules or forms that make the process (which involves errors corrections) more difficult. For Krashen the process of learning is more difficult than the process of acquisition. Learners learn concepts about the language (grammar rules) and not the language itself.

The rest of the hypothesis will be explained further on, expecting that Krashen can maintain the difference between acquisition (out of explicit rules) and learning (based on rules). 

Practical Tasks for Mastering the Mechanics of Writing and Going Just Beyond

By Manuel Espinal

The author is teacher and journalist 

The present chapter is based on the abilities and the capacity that learners must develop in writing since the first very moment they start to learn a particular language, English in this case.

Writing drills must be indicated for learners in their early stage of acquisition. In doing so, teachers help students to recognize important features within the language and develop some skills, as of the comprehension (reading and listening) and production (speaking and writing). Furthermore, through writing, teachers initiate a process that will help learners to accustom to developing an appropriate orthography.

Giving support to the above said, let us present in an outlined way some aspects related to the skill of writing according to Elite Olshtain.

Olshtain, while centering on a discursive approach about the language teaching in which the goal of interaction is the meaningful communication, concedes to the skill of writing a special status. It is through this activity we can communicate hundreds of messages for known and unknown readers and this compels us to be respectful of a series of aspects and rules involved in the process of writing.

The medium to communicate our thoughts through writing is the text, which is loaded with our intentions, so we have to take into account that our production must be clear, accurate, with no spelling error, and with no faulty punctuation. It means we have to give the chance to the readers to perceive clearly those underlying ideas or intentions. However, if we want to accomplish scripts with these qualities, we have to write as much as possible in order to develop the mechanics of writing.

Limiting the issue to our case, as teachers we have to encourage learners of English to produce, although minimally, meaningful sentences through exercises centered on the development of writing skills. As learners write, they start the process of recognition of elements conforming the English language system (letters or other graphic shapes), which provides students with support in the acquisition of the mechanics of reading.

It’s necessary to say that is very important for teachers to take into account the student’s level of linguistic and discourse proficiency for dealing with the development of the so called writing skills.  

  

Getting back into Olshtain considerations about the skill of writing, let us enumerate some of those elements or aspects that help students develop in writing as learners of English as foreign language (EFL).

Writing System and Early Writing in a New Language (English)

EFL learners usually acquire the mechanics of writing in English as an extension of their abilities to read and write in their first language. But, for obtaining positive outcomes in the teaching process we must be conscious of the writing system students already know in order to design an efficient program that suits their particular needs.

Students coming from countries where the writing system is based on meaning, such as the Chinese (the graphic signs is a unit of meaning in the real world and the direction of writing can be up and down, that of different from English) the process is much more slow than those students accustomed to using a linear system of writing such as those coming from western Europe and Latin America.

Learners whose first language employs a Roman alphabet (linear) need less effort at the beginning to recognize the direction of letters and the sound-letter correspondences than those who use an alphabet based on meaning. The latter learners first have to be trained for acquiring the graphic sign with a vocal sound and then recognizing the sequence of such graphic sound seeming more difficult for them in comparison with the first. 

The Mechanics of reading and writing

When using the term mechanics of writing we refer to the very early stage of letter recognition, letter discrimination, sound-to-letter correspondence word recognition, and basic rules of spelling. After the early stage, we center on expanding the spelling rules, focus on punctuation and capitalization, and cover the comprehension and production of sentences and short paragraphs. The time devoted to developing the mechanics of writing serves the acquisition of both reading and writing skills.

In the early stage, to learn to discriminate one letter from another while reading, learners need to practice writing these letters, to facilitate their perception of words and sentences during the reading process.

Sound-spelling correspondences

It is a difficult process for beginning English learners by means of which a sound or several sounds (allophones) correspond to a letter or grapheme. Consequently, it is only achieved via intensive practices.

Learners have to dedicate a lot of time to the process of acquiring and learning the rules of pronunciation (although there are consistent and predictable (regularities) rules on how to pronounce consonants and vowels, there are many exceptions to memorize (irregularities).

Classroom application

Before asking students to solve problems related to the mechanics of writing and reading, as teacher we need to consider the aims of them. Let us see:

a) They allow enhancing letter recognition in the early learning stage, especially when learners come from a different writing system.

b) Through practice we learn how to give the correspondent sound to graphemes (letters).

c) By developing intensive writing activities, we pass several stages in the process of mastering the mechanics of reading and writing: letters, words, sentences and larger units of discourse.

With this clearly in mind, the next steps are a series of classroom’s activities, such as: matching tasks, writing tasks,   sound-spelling correspondences tasks. Every one of these tasks has a specific objective.

Students, with the passing of time, get more involved in developing and acquiring the mechanics of writing and reading, and more complex tasks are indicated by teachers.

In conclusion, the activity of writing and reading develops the intellectual and communicative capacity of learners, since these activities encompass a great deal of specific topics or issues. 

Markedness in Universal Grammar (UG) and Second Language Acquisition

By Manuel Espinal

The author is teacher and journalist

The term “Markedness” is used in Universal Grammar (UG) by generative linguists (as Chomsky) to distinguish common rules in languages (unmarked) from those which are not common (marked).  Markedness, according to “Advanced English Dictionary,” is a linguistic phenomenon of words, forms or phonemes that are considered to be more complicated, less natural or stranger than usual forms. An example for this definition is to use the word comedienne instead of comedian (lexical markedness).

The term, applied by the Russian phonetician Nikolái Serguéievich Trubetskói for the first time and initially reduced to phonetics, is very popular in Universal Grammar’s linguists, because they use it to refer to those rules that speakers from different language can share, for which they apply the word core or unmarked and those rules which are privative of a specific language and consequently cannot be shared by speakers (peripheral or marked).

Let me illustrate this term using several examples from the fact that markedness is used in all language’s areas (phonetics, semantics, pragmatics, Lexicology, morphology, syntax, phonology, etc.)

In morphology, markedness is produced when we inflect or derive a word. For instance, negative words are marked more than positive.

A derivational example might be: realistic (unmarked)/unrealistic (marked)

An inflectional example might be: have► she has (marked)/ speak► she speaks (unmarked)

In phonology, the use of two pronunciations for one word, but one is more used (unmarked) than the other (marked). E.g.: Indirect [ˌɪndɪˈrekt] (marked)/ [ˌɪndaɪˈrekt] (unmarked). The latter case is more used in American English speakers.

Furthermore, we can find markedness, as it is logical, between two languages: English and Spanish, for instance. In these two languages, the dative is the beneficial of the verbal action. Let us see:

*Juan compró un carro para Luis. (unmarked).

*John bought a car for Louis. (unmarked)

The dative (syntactic function) Para Luis or For Louis in both languages is the verbal action recipient or beneficiary, so we can say that this case or rule is unmarked in English as in Spanish. However, there is marked difference for placing the adjective in a sentences or a phrase when modifying a noun. In Spanish, the adjective has no privative position; although the meaning is not the same. But in English, it is grammatically placed before a noun. For example:

·        Mi Viejo amigo, meaning that they have been friend for years.

·        Mi amigo Viejo, referring to the friend’s age. (marked)

·        My old friend, referring to the age. (marked)

But for contextualizing the first Spanish example, in English; we have to specify it with a phrase, because the use of the adjective is inconsistent in both languages. E. g.: My friend of long time.

And so on, we could illustrate as many examples as possible.

As we learn the similarities and contrasts between our native language and the target one, the L2 process of acquisition is easier. That is why; we have to advance in the native and target language learning and raising awareness about our responsibility as teachers, and not disregarding that we must become more proficient learners. 

Analysis on articles of Dr. Andrés Merejo

·        Tiempos Híbridos/Hybrid Times

·        El hombre dominicano sin atributos: más allá del hombre mediocre, “light” y marginal./Dominican men without qualities: beyond mediocre, light and marginal man

     By Dariza Jiménez

The author is teacher

Living in an age when ideas change suddenly it is crucial to keep one way of thinking, one direction in our ideas. This is a world mixed up in real-world and the cyberspace. Sometimes both look the same, however there are notable differences.

A good thinker, a philosopher is one that stands for his own ideas no matter how much the world changes or gets blended in the concepts of real world and virtual world. This person knows how to keep a good relationship in the society by stands for his principles, building his own world of thoughts permanently over the complexity and the evolution of life.

In simple words, one should have his own conceptions of the world around us, about our culture, about the society; otherwise others will impose their ideas over ours and over us, having power and control. That will establish the difference, the self-identity, the authenticity of the self.

Authenticity in life has to do with decision-making based on our plans and personal projects. Life will be developed depending on those projects previously stablished in our minds. However not everyone has such plans.

Some of us choose to live a life with no plan, no dreams, following the wave of the sea, the rhythm of the world, being led by other`s ideas and ideology. Others prefer to live as simple as possible with no consideration of what is important, correct or incorrect.

All around the world, every kind of people can be found; immoral ones corrupted by the greed of their hearts, insensible ones who do not care about anything.

On the other hand, ethic people, hardworking ones, who value the work as a source of personal development and growth. There are virtuous man away of any kind of vice whose authentic life is an example for youngers ones; an inspiration to their friend and a pride to their family and community, a hardworking man; who rebels against any kind of corruption, whose life is relevant and meaningful, overcoming barriers to make their dreams come true.

In our country, the Dominican Republic, the corruption is part of the political system.  Some people go after their own interest and longing for wealth at expense of the poor ones and the resources of the country, however there are thousands of men and women who get up every morning pursuing a better life through hard work; living an honest and respectful life, being led by their ideas, having plans, dreams, a goal to reach beyond the simplicity of unworthy wealth.

In my very humble opinion, Dominican people, besides being hospitable and nice people, we are hardworking. 

Analyzing Dominican social and political bahavior

By Manuel Espinal

Manuel Espinal 

Based on cyber-politics: “Signs of a fall” and Dominicanity between the gray and mental deficiency of Andrés Merejo

Sobre ciberpolítica: “Presagio de una caída”  y “Dominicanidad entre lo gris y lo oligofrénico” de Andrés Merejo

From the fact that politics represents a battle of opposing interests, even in the same political groups, the current political situation in the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD for its initials in Spanish) comes to confirm that individuals or groups have their own economic, politic and life projects which are manifested through the search of the power; and for developing or carrying out such projects, they are able to use any useful device or tools which allow them the achievement of it.

Dr. Andrés Merejo

The pursuit of that political power within PLD is an undeniable reality since there has been a battle about that party leadership from many years ago between former president Leonel Fernandez and the current president of the nation, Danilo Medina. 

The political facts indicate that Fernandez had been the most popular and charismatic leader of such party, but a series of actions related with corruption have affected Leonel’s figure, who is now out of the power, and under this situation, besides the fragmentation of the opposition parties; Medina has assumed the leadership of his party and also of the nation according to some polls recently published.

Politicians, who are not entirely ethic as to obtain the power, are able to use any strategy, stratagem, trick or any means to justify their behavior. And, talking about any means, it is what Danilo and his structure or followers used and have used to consolidate themselves from the power.

Danilo has organized a giant structure; funded from the State by the way, which includes journalists and opinion leaders within the PLD and through mass media: radio stations, TV channels, newspapers, and of course, cyberspace through social networks such as: Twitter, Facebook, blogs, Instagram, etc. whose objective has been degrade Leonel political figure and promote a divisive speech within opposition leaders.

For such purposes, Danilo and his followers drew upon people related to the drug dealing, for example Quirino Ernesto Paulino Castillo, who revealed how he cooperated with Leonel’s campaign when ran for presidency pursuing his second term of four years (2004-2008). With his statements few months ago, Quirino finished discrediting Leonel Fernandez morality, and somehow limiting his possibilities for a new presidential candidacy, as in fact happened.

In spite everything I have said till now, the most important is not Leonel popularity fall, whose presage was turning into reality at full speed, and his demoralization as a person and political leader or the opposition parties’ slowdown, but people indifference with relation to the unethical behavior assumed by the government to achieve its purpose.  

The officials of the government were completely convinced that, in spite of their unethical methods to impose the new Magna Carta modification to establish the presidential reelection, people were not about to demand any explanation on the government attitude, and if by any chance some citizens dared to protest by the indiscriminate use of money from government for bribing PRD (Dominican Revolutionary Party) legislators, the protests were confined to fail as the time was lapsing, since the government was to launch its media machinery to suppress any reaction.

Finally, to close this paper on my reflections about Merejo's articles, I must say that the dysfunction of mass media called individual or social narcotization is fulfilled, since we have many individuals who think that if they are informed or exposed to mass media, it is enough to stop social defects or the vices of politicians, however they do not carry out any action to prevent politicians from keeping their misbehavior.

Perfil ético del profesional del área de lenguas extranjeras

Perfil ético del profesor del área de lenguas extranjeras

Por:

Danilo Zamora, Martín Custodio, Jean Jonas, Lourdes Ramírez,

Dariza Jiménez, Nelson Madera y Manuel Espinal

·         Manuel Espinal

·         Dariza Jiménez

·         Nelson Madera

·         Martín Custodio

·         María Lourdes Ramírez 

·         Danilo Zamora

·         Jean Jonas Oplan

·         Blacina De La Cruz

Resumen

            En sentido general, la educación pre universitaria establece una serie de deberes (comportamiento ético) a través de los cuales el maestro dominicano debe regir su práctica docente, su comportamiento individual y social.

            Este comportamiento debe servir de modelo a la sociedad y todos los miembros de la comunidad educativa: padres, tutores, estudiantes, amigos de la escuela, directores, subdirectores, coordinadores, orientadores, personal de soporte técnico, personal de apoyo; en fin todo aquel que de algún modo se involucra con la educación.

Ética del profesional de la educación

            El maestro dominicano, dado el nivel de rigor que implica el proceso educativo; el cual contempla una serie de competencias sobre las cuales debe formarse el estudiantado y que el docente debe poseer y manifestar en su práctica, ha de fundamentar su quehacer docente en una gama de preceptos que le permitirán servir de modelo, en cuanto a que es un ser humano que actúa en base a normas de carácter social y moral; y claro está de carácter jurídico y religioso:

·         Respeto a la legislatura educativa

·         Asistir regular y puntualmente a su trabajo

·         Cumplir con las normas laborales

·         Cumplir con el horario y calendario escolar

·         Apegarse a las indicaciones docentes respecto a la modalidad en la que opera su enseñanza

·         Centrar su práctica en las políticas que el currículo educativo indica

·         Ser honesto

·         Ejercer debidamente la autoridad

·         Ejercer la profesión con empeño y dedicación

·         Ser íntegro y eficiente

·         Ser higiénico con los registro

·         Trabajar en equipo

·         Rechazar los vicios sociales dando explicaciones sobre estos

·         Formarse continuamente

·         Actualizar y perfeccionar sus conocimientos

·         Ser democrático

·         Respetar la integridad y personalidad del educando

·         Mantener relaciones cordiales con el educando y sus padres o tutores, entre otros deberes (ver Reglamento del estatuto del docente, título VII, cap. I).

Los deberes del docente dominicano que enumeramos en el párrafo anterior, bien pueden contribuir para la formación de un profesional que moralmente sirva de patrón al resto de la sociedad, pero contienen un componente de obligatoriedad.  Sin embargo, los maestros deben ceñirse a éstos no a partir de sus deseos, su voluntad,  o porque se sienten feliz al ajustarse a los preceptos o mandatos ya mencionados. Entonces, es a partir de una serie de retos personales superiores que los maestros debe actuar, que estén por encima de los mandatos ya citados, que le permitan al docente lograr o alcanzar su autorrealización y satisfacción, teniendo en cuenta sus propias ideas y estrategias sobre cómo formar al sujeto ávido de conocimientos significativos.  Ellos mismos deben enfocarse en sus metas; hacia dónde van, cómo las van a lograr sin tener que dañar a los demás. En fin, un sujeto ético que se plantea su autosatisfacción y felicidad en base a su quehacer educacional de manera positiva.

Tomando como referencia los detalles que hemos señalado sobre el deber-ser del maestro en sentido general, ha de ser ético el maestro de lenguas extranjeras, ya en lo particular y desde un punto deontológico; que es el caso que nos compete, el que se propone ser un conocedor profundo de los métodos de enseñanza sobre el idioma inglés y francés, que son los idiomas obligatorios de acuerdo con el currículo nacional de educación, aquel maestro que se ha concentrado en articular una serie de estrategias, técnicas y actividades que fomenten aprendizajes evidenciados en la ejecución de los alumnos, aquél que se propone adquirir un vocabulario o registro lexical profundo para transmitir con propiedad los conocimientos que posee. Aquél que, en definitiva, no desmaya en dar lo mejor de sí para formar un aprendiz calificado.

Ethical profile of the foreign languages teacher in the Dominican Republic

By:

·         Manuel Espinal

·         Dariza Jiménez

·         Nelson Madera

·         Martín Custodio

·         María Lourdes Ramírez

·         Danilo Zamora

·         Jean Jonas Oplan

·         Blacina De La Cruz

Abstract

            The pre-university education, in general sense, sets a series of duties (ethical behavior) through which Dominican teachers must rule their teaching practice and their individual and social behavior.

            Teacher’s behavior must be a paradigm for society and all of the members of the educational community, such as: parents, tutors, school ties, principals, assistant managers, coordinators, technical support staff, support staff; in short whoever that somehow is connected or linked to education.

  Professional code of ethics for Dominican educators

            Dominican teacher must focus their teaching practice on a set of duties that will allow them to be a model for the rest of their community, since they are human beings that behave on the base of social, moral, legal and religious standards. This all is due to the degree of rigor that implies the educational process; which comprises a series of competencies that teachers must possess and on which students must be formed.

According to the “Ordinance of teachers’ rules in its title VII; chapter I, teachers must:

·         Respect educational legislature

·         Attend to school regularly and punctually

·         Comply with labor standards

·         Comply with the class and school schedule

·         Follow indications with respect to the mode of teaching

·         Center their teaching practice on the policies established by the educational curriculum

·         Be honest

·         Exercise authority properly

·         Practice their profession with determination and dedication

·         Be upright and efficient

·         Work record books carefully

·         Work in team

·         Reject social vices and give explanations about these ones

·         Update and optimize their knowledge

·         Learn continually

·         Be democratic

·         Respect the integrity and personality of their learners

·         Develop friendly relations with their learners and learners’ relatives, among other duties

All of those duties that we have listed above may contribute for the moral preparation of our teachers, but these precepts seem to be compulsory; and teachers comply with them not because they want to or are willing to adapt to them, but for social pressure. Therefore, it is from a series of personal challenges that teachers must act; challenges that are greater than the mentioned precepts or commands. The challenges will allow teachers’ self-realization and satisfaction, because they will take into account their own ideas and strategies to achieve their aims, which are the meaningful learning of their students. Thus, teachers must focus themselves on their goals with respect to the learners, what they want to get from their students and how they will get. In sum, they must turn into ethical subjects, searching for their self-satisfaction and happiness through a positive educational practice.

            Having as reference, in general sense, the given details on the teachers’ must-be, we conclude saying that it is an ethical teacher, the one that teaches English or French (foreign languages according to the curriculum), trying to deepen on the teaching methods in order to improve his/her practice. It is an ethical teacher the one that is concentrated in articulating a set of strategies, techniques and activities that help students accomplish meaningful learning. It is an ethical teacher the one that has proposed on his/her own to acquire a huge lexical record or vocabulary for conveying properly the knowledge s/he possesses. In short, it is ethical s/he who does not stop to give the best as teacher!    

CYBER POLITICS: BEYOND TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY

Cyber Politics: Beyond technology and policy

 BY :Lourdes Ramirez

Lourdes Ramírez

When we talk about technology in the cyberworld involving cyberspace, the cyberworld, the cyberculture and cyberpolitics. This does not mean that the human being would be replaced, according to the technological advances we live in an age where technology has gone beyond we imagined. The technology is everywhere and results in subjects’ cyber ranging from the housewives to the most sophisticated carrier at the university level.

We can also see that the communication through the cyber world has no limits, social processes are accelerated information flow each second .There are people after several years of losing communication either because they emigrated to another city or stated meet again across this wonderful  cyberworld.

The Cyber Politics can be defined as the political activities that the people in cyberspace rather is the transformation of this when making policy. It does not have committee meetings base. Through the social networks is that the political agenda is made, meaning through the cyberpolitica members of a political party have access to information through networks.

It is fascinating network are organized and so each member has the right to speak freely. In cyberspace there is no control. There you can see that people are participants in the real and virtual processes, this is a new way of doing politics in the wonderful world of hyper network. So we can see that the virtual and the real become part of space and cyberspace.

As we can contact the cyberpolitics has been good progress in virtual environments such as Twitter, Facebook,Google, WhatsApp. Through such communication link is well defined through these well-defined a bond of communication with CyberPolitics the subject ciberpolitico has moved to a new field of virtual control field.

 Besides all this has emerged the electronic espionage that there was also missing and may have strong criticisms or degradation by such networks or virtual communications, which is normal not only in her virtual field but in any professional field when there is competition.

ENTANGLED IN NETS

Today almost all people have access to social networks. Cyber subjects are connected and interacting massive, but keep in mind what network type are used and for what purpose. We must display specific networks according to our profile depending on our critical thinking and our professional level.

If we use the networks for personal growth and collective development are on track to not get caught and subtracting from our knowledge that could be harmful. There are people who have become victims of some networks and has become an addiction such as Facebook, WhatsApp must know how to use them and for what purpose.

Most people no longer have a personal communication with friends but through networks, you can see that there is often a group of friends in a certain place and there are few who interact face to face, they prefer networks using their Smartphone or tablet. But the most important thing is to know what we are looking for in the network and what is harmful for us. So  creativity and the innovation are very important in the cyberworld.